Indeed, one (Chief) went as far as to say that the only way to learn the business of a fireman was to go to fires - a statement about as monstrous and contrary to reason as if he had said that the only way to become a surgeon would be to commence cutting off limbs without any knowledge of anatomy or of the implements required."

 Sir Eyre Massey Shaw 1868

REALISTIC TRAINING - For Success and Safety

by

Shan Raffel EngTech MIFireE

On the job training works well for most occupations and trades. However, Emergency Service teams or crisis response workers can find themselves in hostile environments or severe crisis situations. Realistic training is required to physically and mentally prepare for these special challenges. The Armed Forces provide a classic example of a workforce required to operate in a wide range of extremely hostile physical environments and crisis situations. They are required to operate effectively in extreme physical environments ranging from jungle, alpine, desert, swamp terrain, etc. If they are to operate effectively in these environments, they must have a sound theoretical understanding of what to expect and how to survive. It has long been realised by the military that theory alone will not fully prepare troops. They must be exposed to the physical environments and practice strategically dealing with a hostile human element. They must also learn to deal with the emotional stress generated when making high risk decisions. The end result of realistic training, is not only an increase in mission effectiveness, but a reduction in battle field casualties.

There are a number of non-military services that can use realistic training methods to mentally and physically prepare their workers. Emergency Service responders routinely respond to situations of varying danger and distress and must be able to make decisions rapidly in order to provide the best service and maintain their own safety.  To the inexperienced, these events can be shocking. This can result in a loss of situational awareness which can cripple the decision making process. Crisis response workers may not routinely be placed in theses situations, but it is just as important that they are able to react instinctively when exposed to potentially hostile environments. So how do we prepare our front line people for these situations?

Realistic training can provide “synthetic experience” by exposing the trainees to key realistic elements in a safe and controlled environment. These elements can start with audio visual presentations and computer simulations and can go as far as large scale structures in streetscape. The key to effective realistic training is to accurately identify the risk scenarios that the student is likely to be exposed to, and then to determine the required response behaviours. It is also essential to introduce the hazardous elements in a logical, progressive, safe and controlled manner. If the task is too overwhelming, there is a chance that the student could lose confidence. Well-executed realistic training introduces “hazardous” or “stressful” elements in challenging but achievable steps. Thus, competence is created by building confidence.

A good example of well-executed and effective realistic training is the staged training of the 21st century firefighter. The environment in a typical structural fire can change rapidly from what appears to be relatively stable, to an inferno with temperatures over 1000 degrees Celsius at ceiling height and over 300 degrees Celsius at floor level. In order to rescue survivors, and locate the seat of the fire, the crews have to be able to work in extreme heat with near zero visibility. Apart from the obvious danger of the toxic smoke and searing flame, they face the possibility of structural collapse, the hazards of electricity, gas and other expected and unexpected dangerous substances. The physical demand is enormous and the emotion stress can be overwhelming.

Some of the greatest dangers faced during structural firefighting are from rapid and unexpected fire development from flashover and backdraft. Many firefighters have lost their lives or been seriously injured because they failed to recognise the fire behaviour indicators that are present during a structural fire. Up until the mid 1980’s the approach by many Fire Services was to produce large fires in training buildings. The trainees were certainly exposed to extreme temperatures and low visibility from the dense smoke. However, in spite of adding these elements of realism, many firefighters were being killed or injured because they failed to recognise the fire behaviour indicators. So while the training was realistic in that it created extreme conditions, it was failing to teach the fundamentals of fire behaviour. This fact was recognised by Swedish Fire Engineer Krister Giselsson in the late 1970’s. As a result of his pioneering work the Swedish Rescue Services Agency revised their training methods and went back to basics in 1985. The approach was to return to the fundamentals by focussing the training on providing a sound working understanding of fire behaviour. Compartment Fire Behaviour Training (CFBT) offers the trainee firefighters an opportunity to experience the development of a fire from the incipient stage, through to the stages just before flashover. This is achieved by lining the back corner of a shipping container with 5 to 8 sheets of particle board. A small crib fire is then lit in the corner and the firefighters are guided through the development phases. The trainees are able to witness the critical changes such as:

a)      Smoke colour, density, thickness and height of the layer.

b)      Air flow movement.

c)      Heat indicators.

d)     Flame shape colour and form. 

These first simple steps allow firefighters to witness the effect of various water application methods and they are given the opportunity to practice and perfect these methods. Only when the firefighters are confident in their ability to recognise and deal with the basics of fire behaviour are they challenged by adding increased levels of fire complexity and other tactical elements.

This training method has proven to be very successful in reducing the number of fatalities and injuries. Why has this approach been so successful? Because this simple training system allows the firefighters to focus only on fire behaviour, hazard recognition and mitigation. The live fire training that was being conducted prior to CFBT had too many stressful elements and did not offer the opportunity to observe and understand fire development. By returning to the very fundamentals of fire behaviour, firefighters become familiar with the physical environment that is commonly encountered in a structure fire. Having to make entry into a burning structure can be very intimidating and overwhelming even for veteran firefighters. Allowing the firefighter to experience the key fire development phases without having to deal with any other stressors, provides an opportunity to gain understanding and familiarity with the physical environment. It also builds confidence in their protective clothing and provides an opportunity to practice the various nozzle techniques that can make them safer and more efficient. Repetitive exposure to these elements makes them less intimidating, and once confidence and competence has been built up, it is then possible to add additional stressful elements. So the next logical stage is to conduct the live fire training in a single story structure and to challenge the team to locate and attack a fire. Once this has been successfully completed other elements such as a secondary fire or a rescue can be added. Upon mastery of these elements, the complexity of the exercise can be increased to the point where the students are operating in larger complex buildings and dealing with multiple challenges. By this stage, the fundamentals of fire behaviour and attack are routine, and the student is able to focus on the more advanced tactical elements such as decision making, communications, command and coordination.

Perhaps the best example of excellence in realistic training can be seen in the training provided to Astronauts by NASA. A great example is the preparation for the Apollo 11 lunar landing. NASA spared no expense to create realistic training environment simulations. The task was all the more daunting as no one had ever actually landed a vessel on the moon and the simulations were based not in direct experience but data and knowledge from previous missions. The success of the realistic training was so outstanding that when questioned about the actual landing, Neil Armstrong had this to say, “It was beautiful, just like the drill”. Apollo 12 mission commander Pete Conrad went as far as to say “it feels like I’ve been there many times before.”

While we would all like to have NASA’s training budget, effective realistic training does not always have to be very expensive or high tech. The “flashover simulators” used by firefighters are actually very low tech and relatively inexpensive. Yet they proved to be more effective in replicating the key fire behaviour than the larger more expensive burn houses that were common in the sixties and seventies. Providing complex, expensive or high tech simulations is not always the most effective method of training. It is more important to ensure that the training is based on a sound needs analysis and has been designed to develop defined learning outcomes safely.

SUMMARY

Realistic training exposes the student to a very real physical environment. However, the most important outcome is to produce a team or individual that is familiar and conditioned to the physical elements and is able to focus on the mental tasks of diagnosing the problems and responding in a calm and instinctive manner.

By progressively combining realistic elements into scenarios and exercises, we can create “synthetic” experience. While this may never be as good as real experience, it can play a major role in keeping crisis teams safer while they are gaining the “real’ experience.  This form of conditioning helps to reduce the shock factor in a real crisis and maximises the chances of the responders being able to maintain situational awareness, diagnose the situation, and respond in the safest manner.

Bibliography

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Grimwood, P., Hartin, E., McDonough, J., & Raffel, S. (2005). 3D Fire Fighting - Training, Techniques and Tactics. Oklahoma State University: Fire Protection Publications.

Okray, R., & Lubnau, T. I. (2004). Crew Resource Management for the Fire Service. Tulsa Oklahoma 74112-6600 USA: PennWell Corporatiion.